Vietnam is vulnerable to cyber attacks from Chinese hackers due to the dispute over the South China Sea (Trinh, 2025; Borten, 2024). Although Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam all claim parts of the South China Sea, China claims almost the entire sea, asserting its dominance through cyber threats and gray zone tactics (Lee, 2025). Gray zone tactics do not go beyond “escalatory thresholds” to be seen as war (Kardon, 2024). China is known for using these tactics to assert its sovereignty over contested territories, challenge the US’s power, and take control of maritime and airspace (Kardon, 2024). Due to the tension with China, Vietnam has committed to improving its internet infrastructure through means such as satellite internet (Huyen, 2024), securitisation of its internet (Trinh, 2025), and through policy frameworks (Trinh, 2025). Vietnam expects to improve its domestic and international cybersecurity policies, especially with the tensions surrounding the South China Sea.
Internet Landscape
Vietnam’s internet infrastructure is extensive–making it vulnerable to Chinese cyberattacks. As of 2021 (Freedom House, 2023), Vietnam covered 4G mobile networks across the country and has achieved a network connection of 95.7% in its provinces (Huyen, 2024). Areas that do not have strong connectivity, also known as “signal dead zones,” are able to connect to solar-powered mobile broadcasting stations provided by the telecommunications company Viettel in remote areas (Huyen, 2024). The Vietnamese government also has decided to partner with SpaceX for Starlink satellite services (Reuters, 2025). As the demand for internet use grows, the Vietnamese government has committed to expanding internet services and coverage. The Deputy of Information and Communications Pham Duc Long, has said that by 2030 everyone in the country will have access to 5G mobile networks at low cost (Vietnam invests in.., 2024).
Vietnam has many connecting cables throughout the South China Sea; however, this has created vulnerability to Chinese threats (Trinh, 2025). Vietnam’s cables have experienced suspicious damage that have been linked to Chinese ships and intrusion (Brummitt, 2023). In 2012, Vietnam’s state-owned oil and gas company accused Chinese boats of sabotaging its seismic survey ships (Brummitt, 2023). Allegedly Chinese fishing vessels in Vietnam’s waters have damaged a Vietnamese survey ship’s cables (Brummitt, 2023). The damage of the ship was one of many incidents that have shown China’s establishment of sovereignty over territories like Vietnam.
Domestic Cybersecurity
Vietnam’s current domestic cybersecurity policies focuses on legal frameworks to combat the urgency of these threats from China (Trinh, 2025). Vietnam has a long history of increasing awareness and solutions, first, in 2015 through the Law on Securing Cyber Information (Trinh, 2025), then in 2018, where the Vietnamese National Assembly enacted the Law on Protecting National Secrets to prevent sharing, theft, and to combat cyberattacks and illegal espionage activities (Trinh, 2025). The Law on Security Cyber Information was aimed to protect the national interests of Vietnam and create cohesion between businesses, organizations, and the government in response to cyber threats (Trinh, 2025). However, many Vietnamese citizens protested against the law with thousands of petitions opposing the bill being passed because they argued that it violated the rights of privacy and confidentiality and took away individuals’ right to internet freedom (Le, 2023).
Although Vietnam’s government has worked to establish cybersecurity protection against threats, internet freedom remains restricted for its citizens (Freedom House, 2023). Although Vietnam passed its first data protection law in 2023– the Personal Data Protection (PDPD) (Data Protection in Vietnam, n.d.), new internet regulations were made around data localization and personal data protection, restricting users freedom to access activities such as high-profile blogs and websites, content promoting organized religions, and access to international websites (Freedom House, 2023). This is due to the ruling of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV), which influences regulations on Vietnamese citizens’ access to information and privacy (Freedom House, 2023).
In relation to the recent cyber threats, Vietnam has adopted strategies to safeguard cybersecurity. Vietnam has taken the threats from China seriously through identifying trends of hackers and ways they can secure their internet (Data Protection in Vietnam, n.d.). From 2015 to 2019, Vietnam identified the leading Chinese hacker groups, “1937cn” and “Mustang Panda,” through various activities (Trinh, 2025). “1937cn” hacked operating systems at the Tan Son Nhat Airport, while “Mustang Panda” attacked information systems at the Vietnamese border offices (Trinh, 2024). In 2023, Vietnam also publicly identified the Chinese’ advanced persistent threats (APT) groups, which are nation-states or state-sponsored organizations (Trinh, 2025). These groups are highly sophisticated threats to Vietnam’s cybersecurity systems and were identified by name as: APT31, APT41, Grayling, Mustang Panda, and SharpPanda (Trinh, 2024). Through this, legal frameworks were established to safeguard the international interest of Vietnam. For example, in 2023, the Decree No. 12/2023/ND-CP was established to protect the personal data of individuals in Vietnam (Nhien, 2025).
As the tensions in the South China Sea continue to grow, Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam face the consequences of China’s aggressive tactics of cyber attacks and espionage (Poling, 2025). China continues to assert its dominance; however, Vietnam refuses to “back down” from its aggressive tactics by continuing to establish its sovereignty (Borton, 2024). Vietnam continues to modernize its military and build new construction to combat Chinese threats and form a stronger internet infrastructure (Borton, 2024). Vietnam’s increase in defensive capabilities made it more costly for China to engage in military conflict, benefiting the country from engaging in Chinese threats (Honrada, 2024). Alongside this in 2024, Vietnam made land reclamation efforts, which is transforming and creating new land from the sea (ScienceDirect Topics. n.d.-a), in the Spratly Islands (Borton, 2024). With military developments and land establishment, this has created Vietnam with more resilience to China’s threats. However, Vietnam still faces many limitations to its military developments and still lacks budget constraints to further protection of its cybersecurity (Honrada, 2024).
An Internet Sovereignty Approach to Internet Governance
Vietnam strictly supports an internet sovereignty approach when it comes to its internet governance; asserting control over information and censoring activities (Freedom House, 2023). The Vietnamese government has taken measures to increase control and regulation in hopes of protecting the country from foreign threats, store data locally to support domestic innovation, and censor the internet overall (Sherman, 2019). In October 2019, Vietnam was ranked as one of the ten most censored countries due to its restrictive laws and clear internet control over media and information (Sherman, 2019).
Vietnam is also regulating national sovereignty protection in cyberspace as a means to detect, fight, and prevent attacks in cyberspace (Kiet, 2021). The Minister of Public Security General, To Lam, said that having national sovereignty over cyberspace means protecting the national sovereignty over safety and security (Kiet, 2021). However, these policies are seen as restrictive to the rights of citizens due to the close censorship to China (Sherman, 2019).
Sources
Borton, J. (2024). Vietnam quiet, firm and resilient in the South China Sea. Asia Times. https://asiatimes.com/2024/12/vietnam-quiet-firm-and-resilient-in-the-south-china-sea/#
Brummitt, C. (2023). Vietnam: Chinese boats cut seismic cables. AP News. https://apnews.com/general-news-2e3102f4501d43a18aee54149e722442
Data Protection in Vietnam. Data protection laws in Vietnam – Data Protection Laws of the World. (n.d.). https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/?t=law&c=VN
Honrada, G. (2024). Vietnam imitating China’s island-making in South China Sea. Asia Times. https://asiatimes.com/2024/10/vietnam-imitating-chinas-island-making-in-south-china-sea/
Huyền, N. (2024). Digital Infrastructure Development to be accelerated. Nhịp sống kinh tế Việt Nam & Thế giới. https://vneconomy.vn/digital-infrastructure-development-to-be-accelerated.htm
Karton, I. B. (2024). Combating the gray zone: Examining Chinese threats to the maritime domain. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2024/06/combating-the-gray-zone-examining-chinese-threats-to-the-maritime-domain?lang=en
Kiet, A. (2021). Vietnam tightens national sovereignty protection in Cyberspace. Hanoi Times – Hanoi News, the political news of Vietnam. https://hanoitimes.vn/vietnam-tightens-national-sovereignty-protection-in-cyberspace-319495.html
Land reclamation. Land Reclamation – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.-a). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/land-reclamation
Le, D. (2023). Vietnam’s Cybersecurity Law: A timeline. The Vietnamese Magazine. https://www.thevietnamese.org/2023/08/vietnams-cybersecurity-law-a-timeline/
Lee, L. (n.d.). China opposes Vietnam’s building work on disputed reef in South China Sea | reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-opposes-vietnams-building-work-disputed-reef-south-china-sea-2025-02-19/
Nhien, L. N. A. (2025). A brief overview of Vietnam’s legal framework on personal data protection. Apolat Legal. https://apolatlegal.com/a-brief-overview-of-vietnams-legal-framework-on-personal-data-protection/#4-decree-132023nd-cp
Reuters. (n.d.). Vietnam to allow spacex’s Starlink Satellite Internet service | Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/vietnam-issues-decision-allow-spacexs-starlink-satellite-internet-service-2025-03-26/
Sherman, J. (2019). Vietnam’s internet control: Following in China’s footsteps? – The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2019/12/vietnams-internet-control-following-in-chinas-footsteps/
Trinh, V. D. (2025). Australian outlook. Vietnam’s Securitisation of Cybersecurity Under Growing Chinese Cyber Threats – Australian Institute of International Affairs. https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/vietnams-securitisation-of-cybersecurity-under-growing-chinese-cyber-threats/
Trinh, V. D. (2024). Vietnam’s struggle with Cyber Security. East Asia Forum. https://eastasiaforum.org/2024/03/20/vietnams-struggle-with-cyber-security/
Vietnam invests in infrastructure for stable internet development. Vietnam+ (VietnamPlus). (2024). https://en.vietnamplus.vn/vietnam-invests-in-infrastructure-for-stable-internet-development-post306223.vnp
Vietnam: Freedom on the net 2023 country report. Freedom House. (2023). https://freedomhouse.org/country/vietnam/freedom-net/2023
